IX. Saints, Shereefs, and Sinners

THE political influence that the Moslem " confraternities " possess in Morocco is not easy to estimate. In ordinary times of peace and prosperity it is probably very small, but the germ of fanaticism which can never be entirely absent from such cults, might under certain circumstances become a dangerous factor in the situation.

In Morocco reside a large number of Shereefian families, descendants of the Prophet — foremost amongst them that of the reigning Sultan. As Shereefs they claimed in the past, and were permitted, great privileges. They were universally respected, not only as forming a superior and religious nobility, but also on account of their great local influence, which they used as a means of mediation between the secular authorities and the tribesmen. Considered, through their possession of the holy "Baraka" — the birthright of all descendants of the Prophet — as men to whom ordinary laws were not applicable, these great families, especially certain selected representatives of them, possessed extraordinary influence and power. Their advice was sought, and followed, by the country people on every question, and their decisions were accepted as final in all points in dispute, even though at times their judgments might be contrary to the unalterable laws of Islam. Not only did these Shereefs live beyond the reach of the ordinary civil and criminal laws, they were also considered as meriting no punishment for their sins. This immunity from the laws of God and man gave them unlimited opportunity — of which they were usually not slow to take advantage — to practise extortion and tyranny, " frailties " which were accepted in silence by the people, who saw, or imagined they saw, in every act and deed of their Shereefs the guidance of the hand of God.

Existing largely on offerings brought to them, or to the tombs of their ancestors, by pious pilgrims, and upon a system of religious taxation, the Shereefian families formed a class entirely apart, and though often enough thoroughly bad, they not unseldom were of great use in settling intertribal disputes and preventing bloodshed.

To such a class European invasion, or any form of stable and just government, meant ruin, and it is not surprising that it was the Shereefian families who have in the past always been averse any kind of reform in Morocco.

The arrival of the French in the country was the deathblow to the irregular influence of these families — not, be it understood, that any repression took place, but from the fact that once peace and security existed in the country there was no longer any necessity for them. Intertribal disputes ceased with the advent of good government, and the intervention of the Shereefs ceased with it. The system of general and just taxation put a stop to much of the revenues of these families, for there was no longer any necessity for the tribesmen to pay large sums to an influential Shereef in order to avoid having to pay still larger ones to the Moorish Government. Although it has been the policy of the French to uphold rather than to suppress the great influential families of Morocco, circumstances have nevertheless lessened their repute and prestige. The native himself has " found them out." The spiritual benefits they promised or bestowed — paid for at a rather high price — were not as valuable as the temporal benefits which accrue from a just and reasonable Government. He has found that he can claim as his right, and not as a privilege to be purchased by money, the justice and assistance which he previously had to buy, often without tangible results. The famous Shereefian families of Wazzan, Bou Jad, and Tamshlat are becoming year by year more dependent upon their agricultural estates for their wellbeing, owing to the falling-off in the offerings of the " faithful." The Moor who formerly put a portion of his fortune into unproductive religious investments in the form of offerings to Shereefs, now puts it into real estate. He still respects the Shereefs, he still kisses the hem of their robes, but he keeps his money for himself.

This gradual disappearance of reverence toward the living descendants of the Prophet has not to any great extent diminished the veneration that is paid to the tombs of deceased saints. Of the two this veneration of the deceased is preferable to that of the living, for at all events the buried Shereef is dead and unable to stir up strife and X. rebellion. The French policy has been extremely able with regard to the " holy places " and " tombs " — for which the authorities demand the greatest respect, and which they themselves treat with respect, even so far as assisting by influence and gifts the prestige of the tomb or mosque as the case may be. It is this respect for the person and tradition of dead saints and scholars that has given so strong an impetus to the " confraternities " or sects of Moslem Morocco.

The study of the introduction of these " confraternities " is beyond the scope of this work. It is sufficient to state that many of them had their origin in the early days of Islam, some even before the time of the Baghdad Khalifs, whose literary tastes and erudition introduced the ideas of Indian and Greek philosophy into a religion the principal attribute of which is its simplicity and lack of imagination. It may almost be said that the only want of judgment exhibited by Mohammed in originating the faith of Islam was in depriving his followers of what is so necessary to all oriental character, an environment of mysticism. But the want supplied itself, for so prosaic a religion as Islam in its crude form was irreconcilable with the traditions and characteristics of the Arab nature. One of the first innovations was the invention of the " Baraka " — or holy birthright pertaining to descendants of the Prophet — which doctrine helped not a little to cause the first great split in Islam, the separation of the Sunni and the Sheiya. By the close of the second century A.H. the traditions of Pantheism and the learning of India and Greece had so permeated the Moslem world that there arose an old cult under a new name — Sufism — the traces of which exist to-day in every one of the sects and " confraternities "of Morocco.

More than the briefest survey of Sufism is impossible here, but brief as it is, it will be sufficient to show how entirely the doctrine stands apart from orthodox Islam.

^

To the Sufi the world is an illusion. It is merely a collection and massing together of the shapes and forms of things which have no real existence, being but the lights and shadows of the reflection and " essence " of the Deity. Given this theory, the Sufi considers that the highest ideal of life, and its ultimate aim, is the merging of all individuality in this vague " essence " of the Deity. It can well be imagined how a doctrine of such a character can be misunderstood and misconstrued amongst an ignorant people, and to-day, in the place of pure Sufism, with its seeking after ideals, we find a number of sects, one and all founded on Sufism, but most of them erring far from its primitive aim. Yet the very incomprehensibleness of these doctrines to the larger part of the people who have adopted them has given a great impetus to the success of these " confraternities." The real philosophy has been lost, and its place has been taken by a belief, the more attractive in that it is inexplicable, that the repetition of certain prayers and extracts from the Koran has mystical powers tending to accomplish the aim in view, the effacement of individuality. It is curious that no cabalistic forms are used in this " dikr " — or formulae — and that even to the most strict Moslem it would be difficult to find fault with the outward and visible form of the tenets of the " confraternities." Yet though in all North Africa the greater part of the population adheres to the orthodox Maleki school of Islam, these sects are so impregnated with Sufism, and even with NeoPlatonism, as to be, one and all, completely unorthodox.

In order that the importance of these sects may be realised, a few words are necessary as to their organisation, for they owe their strength principally to the system by which the various centres are kept in touch with one another, and obedience to supreme orders guaranteed.

Each " confraternity " has its central " zaouia " or sanctuary, where either the chief of the sect resides or its founder is buried. From these centres their policy is promulgated, and by means of subordinate " zaouias," each under the charge of a spiritual " Sheikh " or " mokaddem," orders are passed on to the devotees. The larger " zaouias " consist usually of a group of buildings containing a mosque and quarters for pilgrims, and for the education of the " tholba," or scholars, all of whom are kept supplied with food from the funds at the disposal of the local officials. It is at these " zaouias " that the initiation of the devotees takes place, and that the followers of each sect gather together from time to time for religious intercourse and services. Scarcely a town exists in Morocco that has not " zaouias " of at least half a dozen saints. All over the country districts, too, they are found, often consisting of only a thatch hut in the vicinity of some revered tomb, but none the less a spot for the concentration of the devotees, and the object of many a long and weary pilgrimage.

It is not necessary that the " Sheikhs " of the sects, or even the founder, should be a descendant of the Prophet, though such is often the case. In some sects the choice of the supreme chief is elective, in some it is hereditary, as in the Wazzan family. In others, again, it is neither elective nor hereditary, it being left to divine agency to disclose who the heaven-appointed " Sheikh " may be. In this latter case, on the death of a " Sheikh," no move is made to name or discover his successor. In due time it " becomes known " that a certain adept at a certain spot is the new chief, and he is at once accepted as the spiritual leader. He need perform no miracle; he need possess no mark or sign to disclose his calling; he may be, and generally is, of extreme poverty; and it is not apparently necessary that he should have any great personal qualifications. There can be no doubt that this curious system of nominating their religious " Sheikhs," though not always put into practice and becoming rarer, is but an example of the secrecy with which their plans are made and carried out, and that the man is really chosen by a secret council without even the knowledge of the individual himself. Word is surreptitiously sent to the heads of all the " zaouias," and upon a given day it is announced to the faithful that a new " Sheikh " has " appeared " in such and such a spot. The frequenters of " zaouias," hundreds of miles apart, obtain the information upon the same day, and the credulous people consider it a revelation from God. The " Derkaoua " are the principal sect that follow this course.

In the hands of the supreme chief lies the selection of the minor " Sheikhs," who in turn possess certain limited powers in the nominating of the " mokaddems," or lesser officials, all of whom have the right, as a rule, of initiating devotees, and all of whom are agents for the collection of funds.

The general and public tenets of the sects are good enough: chastity, patience, poverty, obedience, and prayer are the principal teachings, though the " derouich," who abandons the ways of the world, and the " khoddam," who is merely an adherent, follow different rules of life and conduct.

The importance of these Moroccan confraternities depends entirely upon the political influence that they are able to exert. When left to themselves, in ordinary times, they consist of

[Service des BeauxA rts, Morocco. COURT OF KAIROUIN MOSQUE, FEZ. little more than religious institutions and brotherhoods, of which the concealed energies, such as they are, are not called forth by circumstances. It is only when they come directly into contact with Europe and Europeans that their essentially religious features might become impregnated with anti-Christian policy. A " Jehad " or " Holy War," accepted and furthered by the united sects of Morocco, might be very dangerous, but, happily, it is also very improbable.

Perhaps the most renowned of all the Shereefian families of Morocco is that of Wazzan (Ouezzan). Descended from the Prophet, the Shorfa of Wazzan can boast of an unbroken lineage for thirteen centuries, though it was not until a couple of hundred years ago that they became of great account. Up to that period they had apparently lived the ordinary devout lives of people of holy descent, no doubt looked up to and probably the recipients of many offerings. The last few generations have, however, enjoyed a great renown throughout Morocco — Mulai Abdullah Shereef, Sid el Haj el-Arbi, and Sid el-Haj Abdesalam. The last named, who died some twenty-five years ago, married an English lady, still residing at Tangier, who carries on there many good and charitable works amongst the Moors. It was she who introduced vaccination into the country, and herself has vaccinated many thousands of the people. She is much loved by the Moors and respected by the Europeans. Her husband, Sid el-Haj Abdesalam, had, by previous marriages with native s women, three sons, who at the time of which I write — the end of the 'eighties and the early 'nineties of the last century — resided in Wazzan. In my early journeys I often visited this fanatical and difficult district, and became great friends of the two elder brothers. In 1889-90 I spent many months at their little religious Court, the only European in any of those regions.

It was a life of great interest: there were constant relays of pilgrims, who came to pray at the tombs of the ancestors of the family and to bring offerings to its living members. They would arrive by dozens, and sometimes by hundreds— men, women, and children, with caravans of mules, ponies, and camels, laden with grain and other products of the country as an offering to the " House of Surety," as it was called by the natives. These pilgrims, who were lodged and fed by the Shereefs, were generally received in audience the day after their arrival. The Shereefs, Mulai el-Arbi and Sidi Mohamed, received them separately, either in their little walled gardens, full of running water and flowers, or else in one of the courtyards of the " zaouia " or sanctuary. Often Mulai elArbi would be seated just inside an open window, through which the passing pilgrims could bend to kiss his holy raiment, while an offering in money was laid upon the window-sill, to be dropped into a basket by the Shereef as each pilgrim proceeded on his way. When the entire string of visitors had passed, Mulai el-Arbi would count his newlyacquired wealth. Although the sums were never great — for the population of Morocco was in its worst days of oppression — the total received during the autumn and winter pilgrim season was no mean one.

The two brothers, Mulai el-Arbi and Mulai Mohamed, were of entirely different characters. The elder was religious and timid, while his brother, Mulai Mohamed, was a hunter and a man of courage and action, whose influence over the surrounding wild mountain tribes was very great. He did not hesitate to use force when he considered it necessary. During the period of my stay at Wazzan the town was constantly attacked. The Shereefs had organised a garrison for its defence, consisting of their followers and slaves, who were well armed and well supplied with ammunition. Sometimes these attacks were really serious, though the casualties were never very great. On one occasion the enemy lost a dozen killed, but, as far as I know, this was the largest number of losses on any one day.

I was present on one occasion when an attempt was made to assassinate Mulai Mohamed. He was seated in a room which was built over an archway across a street. Opening on to the street at either end of this room were two large windows. The ground below sloped upwards, so that any one higher up the street could see right through the room. It was here that Mulai Mohamed often sat, surrounded by particular friends and retainers. We were there one afternoon drinking green tea, the favourite beverage of Morocco, while a relation of the Shereefs was reading aloud from an old Arabic manuscript. Suddenly the glass of the windows at both ends of the room was broken, and simultaneously we heard the report of a rifle. There was a little panic amongst the guests, but Mulai Mohamed, without a moment's hesitation, ordered his cousin to continue the reading. The bullet had passed through the room, just missing the Shereef. The would-be assassin was never discovered. The shot had been fired from the upper end of the street a hundred yards or so away, and no clue was ever obtained as to who fired it.

Wazzan was the home of tragedy. Except for the paramount influence of the Shereefian family there was no Government of any kind. The Sultans had at various periods attempted to enforce their jurisdiction, but had never succeeded. Although ostensibly on good terms with the Shereefs, the jealousy between the reigning family and Wazzan was intense. The followers of the Shereefs, and such tribal villages which were counted as special devotees of the " zaouia," paid no taxes, and were outside the jurisdiction of the Sultan's governors. The result was constant friction; but the Wazzanis' religious influence was so strong, and in such fear was their name held, that on the whole the Shereefs were able to set the Sultan's word at nought.

Both Mulai el-Arbi and Mulai Mohamed are long since dead. The elder brother was insane for some years before his death, and the last time

I saw him his mind was completely deranged. He was seated in a chair in the centre of a semicircle of his women, who were, of course, closely veiled, though it was contrary to all tradition that they should be there at all. Besides his ladies, the room contained several live sheep and a host of fowls, ducks, and pigeons. He had changed but little in appearance. I noticed that his retainers, who introduced me, paid perhaps more deference to the mad Shereef than they had done in the days of his health; but oriental people have a strange reverence for insanity. Mulai el-Arbi made no sign of recognition, and sat immovable. I recalled to him the months I had spent as his guest and incidents of my many visits, but to no avail. He listened, but made no reply, though from time to time I noticed a puzzled look on his face. I made a move to go, but with his hand he beckoned me to be seated again, and once more I continued trying to recall the wandering memory of my host. At last a gleam stole into his eyes, and he said very slowly, " Yes, and greyhounds; lots of greyhounds." He had remembered; for, hunting often, I had kept quite a number of native " slougis " in the days of my stay at Wazzan. It was all he said. He died a few months later.

Some idea of the sanctity of this man even in his own household can be gathered from an incident which occurred during one of my visits. china teacup of considerable value was missing after tea had been served. The slaves were summoned, and one was accused by the Shereef — it must be confessed on no evidence — of having stolen it. He was severely beaten: when I say severely beaten, he received a flogging that would probably have killed a European. That night, after the Shereef had retired into his house, I went to see the slave, who, considering the terrible punishment he had received, was bearing up very well. I asked him if he was guilty of the theft. His reply was pathetic. " I have no recollection of having stolen the teacup, but I must have done so, for my lord the Shereef has divine knowledge, and could not have made a mistake." The cup was found and the slave proved guiltless, but he received a severe reprimand for not having been able to prove his innocence from the first.

Mulai Mohamed, the younger of the two brothers, predeceased Mulai el-Arbi. He died of a lingering and painful malady. He was by far the most attractive of the two — a sportsman, energetic and witty. I accompanied him on many a great hunt in the Wazzan districts, when wild boar, jackals, hares, and partridges were slain galore — driven from their covert by hundreds of tribesmen. Often these hunts lasted several days, and the evenings and nights were spent under canvas in feasting and revelry: great days and great nights!

The third brother, Mulai Thami, had also a tragic end. He had served as a youth in the French Army in Algeria, and had learnt to read and write French, but he had fallen a victim to intemperance. He was a good deal younger than his two brothers, and the son of another wife, and considerable jealousy existed between them. He complained that his share of the revenues did not reach him, and that he was often sorely in need of money. When drunk he at times became very violent; on other occasions he was charming, an excellent conversationalist, and he had received a good education. Drink at length affected his brain, and a series of incidents led to his imprisonment. I was at Wazzan at the time. In a fit of madness he fired from a window of his house upon people passing to the mosque to prayer. Several were killed, but his sanctity rendered him immune from any punishment. The townspeople stated it was the " Will of God," manifested through the holy Shereef, and some even envied the people who had found death at his hands. All that was done was to post a soldier in front of his house to warn the passers-by that there was a risk of being shot! The same night Mulai Thami wrote me a letter. It is undated — it was December 1889 — and is written in French: —

" MON CHER AMI, — Je vous prie de dire a mes freres que je les remercie beaucoup de m' avoir envoyer encore un soldat pour me tuer, parceque aujourd'hui j'ai monte dans mon ' couba ' pour prendre un peu d'air. Comme je regardai par la fenetre je voyai un soldat arme de sa carabine. J'avais peur, alors j'ai arme sur lui ma carabine, mais comme il m'a dit qu'il ne me fera rien je 1'ai laisse* passe tranquilement. Aussitot est alle dire a mes freres que j'ai voulu le tuer. Je vous jure par la tete de notre Prophete Mohamet si je voudrai faire 9a j'ai d'autres endroits ou je pourrai tuer tout ce qui passe, mais seulement je ne suis pas fou. J'ai tue ces hommes parceque j'^tais ivre, et puis en colere, a cause du voyage et a cause d'une histoire entre moi et un cherif. Je vous jure, mon cher ami, que je n'avais pas la tete a moi.

" Maintenant, cher ami, dites a Muley el-Arbi qu'il me rend mon mulet et qu'il m'envoie de P argent, car je creve de faim, moi et ma famille.

" Je vous prie de faire votre possible avec mes freres pour me sauver la vie a moi et ma pauvre mere. Le coup de fusil qu'il m'a donne le soldat ne m'a attrape.

" C'est comme 9a qu'on doit etre les freres?

MULEY TOUHAMI."

(Translation.)

" MY DEAR FRIEND, — I beg you to tell my brothers that I thank them very much for having sent still another soldier to kill me, for to-day I went up to my couba (upper room) for a little air. As I looked out of the window I saw a soldier armed with his rifle. I was afraid, and I aimed my rifle at him, but as he told me he would do nothing I let him pass quietly. He at once went to my brothers to say that I had wished to kill him. I swear to you on the head of our Prophet Mohamed that if I had wished to do so I have other places from which I could kill every one who passes, only I am not mad. I killed those men because I was drunk, and also angry on account of a journey and on account of a story between me and a Shereef. I swear to you, my dear friend, that I was ' off my head.'

" Now, dear friend, ask Mulai el-Arbi to return me my mule, and that he send me some money, for my family and I are starving.

" I beg you to do your utmost with my brothers, so as to save my life and that of my poor mother. The shot that the solider fired missed me.

" Is it thus that brothers should be?

MlTLEY TOUHAMI."

He omitted to state in this letter that he had, as well as killing the people he speaks of, attempted to murder the two sons of his brother Mulai Mohamed, by firing on them inside the mosque!

On Christmas night, a few weeks after these incidents, I went to see Mulai Thami, who had been sober and in his right mind for some time. We were to go hunting the next day at dawn, and a few details of our excursion still remained to be settled. I had supper with him, but on % leaving the supper-room in which we had spent the evening I was treacherously attacked by the Shereef and his slaves. In the struggle I fell down the steep flight of stairs. My call for help had alarmed some passers-by, and the Shereef 's retainers heard voices in the street. They fled, and their master disappeared into the inner part of the house. After a short period of unconsciousness I was able to open the door and get out into the street — a pitiful figure, my clothes torn to rags and stained with blood from a wound on the head, happily only skin-deep, and much bruised.

Mulai Thami was imprisoned. After a period of incarceration at Wazzan he was taken to Tangier, but he had become quite insane, and on being brought into the presence of his father, Sid el-Haj Abdesalam, who still lived at Tangier, he wanted to assassinate him. He was confined at Tangier, and some little time later was sent to a lunatic asylum in France, where he lived for several years, suffering from the strange delusion for a Mohammedan— that he was Jesus Christ.

Wazzan was at this period the most lawless place in Morocco. Many murders of important personages took place. The almost total immunity of the Shereefs from punishment — for it was only this head of the family who had the right to imprison them, a right dangerous to exercise for fear of reprisals — increased crime. One instance will be sufficient to demonstrate the absolute anarchy which existed.

A Fez merchant, who was residing at Wazzan at this time, possessed a daughter who was reputed to be of great beauty. A Shereef asked the father for his daughter's hand in marriage, and was refused. The Fez merchant desired her to marry a young man of his own native town, and the Shereef in question was quite undesirable. In time the wedding of the young Fezzi and the girl took place. It was night, and the bridegroom rode at the head of the procession, which had proceeded to fetch the bride from her father's house. In the gaily-decorated " Amaria " — a sort of box carried on a mule's back — was the bride, surrounded by her relations. Many of the crowd carried lanterns, and the air rang with the gay music of drums and fifes. Suddenly the procession was attacked by a group of men emerging from a side street. It was the disappointed Shereef and his retainers. The bridegroom was shot, the guests dispersed, and the bride carried off to the house of the Shereef, who forthwith married her.

Wazzan, surrounded by its gardens and olive groves, is one of the most picturesque towns in Morocco. It is situated on the eastern slopes of a double-peaked mountain, with an extensive view over range after range of wild hills to the highlands, often snow-covered, of the Sheshouan district. Snow often falls, and lies for two or three days together, in Wazzan itself. The result is inconvenient, for as fast as it accumulates on the flat roofs of the houses the inhabitants shovel it off into the streets, which at times are completely blocked. Situated on the borders of the " Jibala " '' — " mountaineer " — country there is no district more turbulent, and Wazzan has been for several years unvisited by Europeans. It falls in the French sphere of influence, and its occupation by the Protectorate troops has lately been spoken of as imminent.1 The town has lost much of its religious prestige. All over Morocco the reverence for the many Shereefian families is disappearing, the native finding that the spiritual return in blessings is scarcely worth the financial sacrifice that is entailed to obtain them. In fact, the days

1 Wazzan was occupied by the French Protectorate troops in October 1920. of the " Holy Shereefs " are nearing an end, though there is still a new role for them to play in Morocco. Their influence, if exerted for good, may yet be very beneficial to the country, and the sons and grandsons of the English wife of Sid el-Haj Abdesalam are setting a good example. Her eldest grandson, who speaks French and English perfectly, is to-day a brilliant young cadet of the Protectorate army in the new military school for the sons of " Nobles " at Meknes. His younger brothers are to enter various professions, in which they can look for every success in the future.

The following sects are the most influential and numerous in Morocco: —

Derkaoua. — Followers of Mulai el-Arbi ben Ahmed el-Derkaoui, who was born about 1730, and is buried in the tribe-lands of the Beni Zerual tribe, in the mountains of NorthWest Morocco, to the north of Fez. He was a Shereef, or descendant of the Prophet, and a renowned scholar. He himself practised the cult of the Chedili sect, a branch of the better-known Kaderia, or followers of Mulai Abdul Kader el-Ghrailani of Baghdad.

The order of the " Derkaoua " is certainly the most powerful in Morocco. It is, as a rule, entirely religious, but would be capable of speedy secret organisation and combined political action. It is a " socialistic " and " ascetic " sect, depreciating all temporal rulers, and only accepting the Sultans of Morocco on the grounds of their Shereefian descent. They accentuate the great doctrine of Islam, the Unity of God, and consider the

Prophet and all other holy men of secondary importance, though they reverence them. They may perhaps best be described as the Unitarians of Morocco. Besides counting a very large number of devotees amongst the middle classes, the sect boasts many professional adherents, for the most part beggars, who can be recognised by their rosaries of exaggeratedly large beads.

The political influence — at present non-existing, but capable of almost instantaneous appearance, should circumstances bring it to life — of this sect is important. Exerted in the interests of peace and order, it might prove invaluable in a time of trouble, for not only is the sect very numerous, but it could also bring much pressure to bear on the people, and other sects. On the contrary, should the Derkaoua proclaim a campaign against Europeans and European influence, their power would be equally strong in the interests of evil, especially in stirring up other religious sects of more fanatical tenets, such as the Aissaoua and Hamacha.

The Derkaoua seem to be the only confraternity in Morocco that still maintains intact their secret organisation.

Aissaoua. — Followers of Sidi ben Aissa. A sect dating from the seventeenth century A.D.; the founder is buried at Mekne"s, where the great annual festival in his honour is held, on the Mouloud, or Prophet's birthday. The adherents of this sect are principally people of the lower classes. They resemble more the " dervishes " of the East than the generality of the other Moroccan sects, for they dance, and work themselves into a state of wild frenzy, in which they devour live sheep, glass, burning coals, the leaves of the " prickly pear," and other equally indigestible food. A number of fables, of little interest, are stated as being the origin of these very unorthodox proceedings, which are looked on askance by the educated Moor. Sidi ben Aissa is also the patron saint of the snakecharmers.

Although when excited to a state of frenzy the " Aissaoua " are capable of acts of fanaticism, they are in their ordinary lives, as a rule, peaceful lawabiding people. There are " zaouias " of the sect all over Morocco, presided over by " Sheikhs " and " mokaddems "; but their organisation appears to be almost entirely localised, and therefore capable of no sudden political combination — nor need such be looked for in any case. There are a certain number of professional adherents, musicians, reciters, snake-charmers, who travel from town to town, and live on charity.

Hamacha. — Followers of Sidi Ali ben Hamdouch, who is buried on the slopes of the Zarhoun Mountains, near Meknes. Like the Aissaoua, whom they much resemble, they are principally people of the lower classes. When worked into a state of religious frenzy, they cut their heads with hatchets and throw up heavy cannon-balls which they let fall on their skulls. They are capable of fanaticism when in a frenzical state, but peaceful citizens in ordinary life. There are a few professional Hamacha, who perform in the towns and country markets for money.

Taibiya. — Followers of Mulai Taiyeb, son of Mulai Abdullah Shereef, of Wazzan. Mulai Taiyeb lived in the early nineteenth century, and is buried at Wazzan. The adherents of this sect are, as a rule, respectable middle-class people. A member of this Shereefian family is always the chief of this order.

Ulad Sidi Ahmed ou Mousa. — " Sons of Sidi Ahmed ou Mousa." The patron saint of all the acrobats. This Shereef was a descendant of Mulai Idris, and died early in the thirteenth century. No political importance of any kind.

Tijania. — Followers of Sidi Ahmed el-Tijani. The adherents of this sect are few in Morocco, though strong in Algeria. Essentially religious.

Shingata. — Followers of the Shereef M'al-Ainin of Shingit, in the far south of Morocco. The sect was founded by this Shereef, who only died five years ago. He was of very holy reputation, and was always veiled. The Sultans Mulai Hassen and Mulai Abdul Aziz paid him the greatest respect, and loaded him with presents on his periodical visits to the Court. On his death he was succeeded by his son, Mohamed Hiba, who took advantage of the disturbed period of 1912 to declare himself Sultan. He even entered Marrakesh, the southern capital, but fled on the approach of the French forces.

Mohamed Hiba was always in revolt, but never venturing out of the southern Sus districts, where an expeditionary force attacked him in 1917, defeating his followers, who were dispersed. He died in 1919.

Kaderia. — Followers of Mulai Abdul Kader elGhrailani, of Baghdad, where he is buried. This " confraternity " has numerous adherents in Morocco, which Mulai Abdul Kader is supposed to have visited. He died in the twelfth century A.D.

It is a strictly religious sect, differing from others solely in the form of prayer used, and in the position taken up when at prayer, and " in the absorbing of the individual in the essence of the Deity " by repetitions of the name of God. This sect shows more traces of Sufism, being of Persian origin, than any other cult in Morocco, but its original practices seem to have become adapted to Moroccan thought and sentiment. It is strictly religious, and it is difficult to say whether it could play any political role.

Nasaria. — Followers of Sidi ben Nasr, who is buried at Tamgrout, on the Wad Draa. An essentially religious and innocuous sect.

Kittamin. — Followers of Sidi Mohamed elKittani, who was beaten to death by order of the Sultan Mulai Hafid in 1909. His martyrdom appears to have given a great impetus to his followers, who are increasing in numbers, especially in Fez. A religious sect.

There are, in addition to the " zaouias " of the " confraternities," a large number of tombs which are visited as places of pilgrimage. It is usual for one day in the year to be set aside for the festival at each of these tombs, and great crowds proceed to these " mousim." A general holiday is kept in the surrounding districts, and pilgrims arrive from far and near. Often if the tomb is situated in the country a whole town of tents springs up around it.

The following is a list of the principal tombs, given in the order of their relative importance: —

The tomb of Mulai Idris I., in the mountains of Zarhoun (died 790 A.D.)

The tomb of Mulai Idris II., at Fez (died 828(?)

A.D.)

The tomb of Mulai Abdesalam ben Mashish (died twelfth century A.D.), in the mountains of the Beni Aros in North-West Morocco.

The tomb of Mulai Brahim in the Ghergaya district, on the northern slopes of the great Atlas, to the south of Marrakesh.

The tomb of Mulai Ali Shereef at Tafilet) died 1590 A.D.)

The tomb of Mulai Busseta el-Khammar in Fichtala, to the north of Fez (twelfth century A.D.)

The tombs of Sebat er-Rejal, " the Seven Men" (i.e., the seven patron saints of Marrakesh).

The tomb of Mulai Bou Shaib at Azimour.

290 MOEOCCO THAT WAS

The tomb of Sidi Ben Daoud at Bu Jad, on the plains of Central Morocco. The tomb of Mulai Bouselham, on the sea-shore of the Gharb province, not far from Laraiche. The tomb and hot springs of Mulai Yakoub, near Fez.