The Book of the Dead

A história do Livro dos Mortos · original

The Book Per-t em hru, or [The Chapters of] Coming forth by (or,

into) the Day, commonly called the "Book of the Dead."

The spells and other texts which were written by Thoth for the

benefit of the dead, and are directly connected with him, were called,

according to documents written under the XIth and XVIIIth dynasties,

"Chapters of the Coming Forth by (or, into) the Day." One rubric in

the Papyrus of Nu (Brit. Mus. No. 10477) states that the text of the

work called "PER-T EM HRU," i.e., "Coming Forth (or, into) the Day,"

was discovered by a high official in the foundations of a shrine of

the god Hennu during the reign of Semti, or Hesepti, a king of the Ist

dynasty. Another rubric in the same papyrus says that the text was

cut upon the alabaster plinth of a statue of Menkaura (Mycerinus),

a king of the IVth dynasty, and that the letters were inlaid with

lapis lazuli. The plinth was found by Prince Herutataf, a son of

King Khufu (Cheops), who carried it off to his king and exhibited it

as a "most wonderful" thing. This composition was greatly reverenced,

for it "would make a man victorious upon earth and in the Other World;

it would ensure him a safe and free passage through the Tuat (Under

World); it would allow him to go in and to go out, and to take at

any time any form he pleased; it would make his soul to flourish, and

would prevent him from dying the [second] death." For the deceased to

receive the full benefit of this text it had to be recited by a man

"who was ceremonially pure, and who had not eaten fish or meat, and

had not consorted with women." On coffins of the XIth dynasty and on

papyri of the XVIIIth dynasty we find two versions of the PER-T EM HRU,

one long and one short. As the title of the shorter version states

that it is the "Chapters of the PER-T EM HRU in a single chapter,"

it is clear that this work, even under the IVth dynasty, contained

many "Chapters," and that a much abbreviated form of the work was also

current at the same period. The rubric that attributes the "finding" of

the Chapter to Herutataf associates it with Khemenu, i.e., Hermopolis,

and indicates that Thoth, the god of this city, was its author.

The work PER-T EM HRU received many additions in the course of

centuries, and at length, under the XVIIIth dynasty, it contained about

190 distinct compositions, or "Chapters." The original forms of many

of these are to be found in the "Pyramid Texts" (i.e., the funerary

compositions cut on the walls of the chambers and corridors of the

pyramids of Kings Unas, Teta, Pepi I Meri-Ra, Merenra and Pepi II at

Sakkârah), which were written under the Vth and VIth dynasties. The

forms which many other chapters had under the XIth and XIIth dynasties

are well represented by the texts painted on the coffins of Amamu,

Sen, and Guatep in the British Museum (Nos. 6654, 30839, 30841),

but it is possible that both these and the so-called "Pyramid Texts"

all belonged to the work PER-T EM HRU, and are extracts from it. The

"Pyramid Texts" have no illustrations, but a few of the texts on the

coffins of the XIth and XIIth dynasties have coloured vignettes, e.g.,

those which refer to the region to be traversed by the deceased on his

way to the Other World, and the Islands of the Blessed or the Elysian

Fields. On the upper margins of the insides of such coffins there

are frequently given two or more rows of coloured drawings of the

offerings which under the Vth dynasty were presented to the deceased

or his statue during the celebration of the service of "Opening

the Mouth" and the performance of the ceremonies of "The Liturgy

of Funerary Offerings." Under the XVIIIth dynasty, when the use of

large rectangular coffins and sarcophagi fell somewhat into disuse,

the scribes began to write collections of Chapters from the PER-T EM

HRU on rolls of papyri instead of on coffins. At first the texts were

written in hieroglyphs, the greater number of them being in black ink,

and an attempt was made to illustrate each text by a vignette drawn

in black outline. The finest known example of such a codex is the

Papyrus of Nebseni (Brit. Mus. No. 9900), which is 77 feet 7 1/2

inches in length and I foot I1/2 inches in breadth. Early in the

XVIIIth dynasty scribes began to write the titles of the Chapters,

the rubrics, and the catchwords in red ink and the text in black,

and it became customary to decorate the vignettes with colours, and to

increase their size and number. The oldest codex of this class is the

Papyrus of Nu (Brit. Mus. No. 10477) which is 65 feet 3 1/2 inches in

length, and 1 foot 1 1/2 inches in breadth. This and many other rolls

were written by their owners for their own tombs, and in each roll both

text and vignettes were usually, the work of the same hand. Later,

however, the scribe wrote the text only, and a skilled artist was

employed to add the coloured vignettes, for which spaces were marked

out and left blank by the scribe. The finest example of this class of

roll is the Papyrus of Ani (Brit. Mus., No. 10470). which is 78 feet

in length and 1 foot 3 inches in breadth. In all papyri of this class

the text is written in hieroglyphs, but under the XIXth and following

dynasties many papyri are written throughout in the hieratic character;

these usually lack vignettes, but have coloured frontispieces.

Under the rule of the High Priests of Amen many changes were introduced

into the contents of the papyri, and the arrangement cf the texts and

vignettes of the PER-T EM HRU was altered. The great confraternity

of Amen-Ra, the "King of the Gods," felt it to be necessary to

emphasize the supremacy of their god, even in the Kingdom of Osiris,

and they added many prayers, litanies and hymns to the Sun-god to

every selection of the texts from the PER-T EM HRU that was copied

on a roll of papyrus for funerary purposes. The greater number of the

rolls of this period are short and contain only a few Chapters, e.g.,

the Papyrus of the Royal Mother Netchemet (Brit. Mus. No. 10541) and

the Papyrus of Queen Netchemet (Brit. Mus. No. 10478). In some the text

is very defective and carelessly written, but the coloured vignettes

are remarkable for their size and beauty; of this class of roll the

finest example is the Papyrus of Anhai (Brit. Mus. No. 10472). The

most interesting of all the rolls that were written during the rule

of the Priest-Kings over Upper Egypt is the Papyrus of Princess

Nesitanebtashru (Brit. Mus. No. 10554), now commonly known as the

"Greenfield Papyrus." It is the longest and widest funerary papyrus

known, for it measures 123 feet by 1 foot 6 1/2 inches, and it

contains more Chapters, Hymns, Litanies, Adorations and Homages to

the gods than any other roll. The 87 Chapters from the PER-T EM HRU

which it contains prove the princess's devotion to the cult of Osiris,

and the Hymns to Amen-Ra show that she was able to regard this god

and Osiris not as rivals but as two aspects of the same god. She

believed that the "hidden" creative power which was materialized in

Amen was only another form of the power of procreation, renewed birth

and resurrection which was typified by Osiris. The oldest copies of the

PER-T EM HRU which we have on papyrus contain a few extracts from other

ancient funerary works, such as the "Book of Opening the Mouth," the

"Liturgy of Funerary Offerings," and the "Book of the Two Ways." But

under the rule of the Priest-Kings the scribes incorporated with the

Chapters of the PER-T EM HRU extracts from the "Book of Ami-Tuat"

and the "Book of Gates," and several of the vignettes and texts that

are found on the walls of the royal tombs of Thebes.

One of the most remarkable texts written at this period is found in

the Papyrus of Nesi-Khensu, which is now in the Egyptian Museum in

Cairo. This is really the copy of a contract which is declared to have

been made between Nesi-Khensu and Amen-Ra, "the holy god, the lord of

all the gods." As a reward for the great piety of the queen, and her

devotion to the interests of Amen-Ra upon earth, the god undertakes to

make her a goddess in his kingdom, to provide her with an estate there

in perpetuity and a never-failing supply of offerings, and happiness

of heart, soul and body, and the [daily] recital upon earth of the

"Seventy Songs of Ra" for the benefit of her soul in the Khert-Neter,

or Under World. The contract was drawn up in a series of paragraphs

in legal phraseology by the priests of Amen, who believed they had

the power of making their god do as they pleased when they pleased.

Little is known of the history of the PER-T EM HRU after the downfall

of the priests of Amen, and during the period of the rule of the

Nubians, but under the kings of the XXVIth dynasty the Book enjoyed a

great vogue. Many funerary rolls were written both in hieroglyphs and

hieratic, and were decorated with vignettes drawn in black outline;

and about this time the scribes began to write funerary texts in

the demotic character. But men no longer copied long selections

from the PER-T EM HRU as they had done under the XVIIIth, XIXth and

XXth dynasties, partly because the religious views of the Egyptians

had undergone a great change, and partly because a number of Books

of the Dead of a more popular character had appeared. The cult of

Osiris was triumphant everywhere, and men preferred the hymns and

litanies which dealt with his sufferings, death and resurrection to

the compositions in which the absolute supremacy of Ra and his solar

cycle of gods and goddesses was assumed or proclaimed. Thus, in the

"Lamentations of Isis" and the "Festival Songs of Isis and Nephthys,"

and the "Litanies of Seker," and the "Book of Honouring Osiris," etc.,

the central figure is Osiris, and he alone is regarded as the giver

of everlasting life. The dead were no longer buried with large rolls

of papyrus filled with Chapters of the PER-T EM HRU laid in their

coffins, but with small sheets or strips of papyrus, on which were

inscribed the above compositions, or the shorter texts of the "Book

of Breathings," or the "Book of Traversing Eternity," or the "Book of

May my name flourish," or a part of the "Chapter of the Last Judgment."

Ancient Egyptian tradition asserts that the Book PER-T EM HRU was

used early in the Ist dynasty, and the papyri and coffins of the

Roman Period afford evidence that the native Egyptians still accepted

all the essential beliefs and doctrines contained in it. During the

four thousand years of its existence many additions were made to it,

but nothing of importance seems to have been taken away from it. In

the space here available it is impossible to describe in detail the

various Recensions of this work, viz., (1) the Heliopolitan, (2) the

Theban and its various forms, and (3) the Saïte; but it is proposed

to sketch briefly the main facts of the Egyptian Religion which

may be deduced from them generally, and especially from the Theban

Recension, and to indicate the contents of the principal Chapters. No

one papyrus can be cited as a final authority, for no payprus contains

all the Chapters, 190 in number, of the Theban Recension, and in no

two papyri are the selection and sequence of the Chapters identical,

or is the treatment of the vignettes the same.